In the Early Nineteenth Century Americans Sought

As time passed the rapidly changing society in the nineteenth century, in 1820 the north and south began to have serious conflicting problems that were proved unfixable by compromise. During this time, the north underwent major social, economic, and industrial changes known as the Antebellum Period. While the south generally clung to king cotton and slavery and thus remained essentially the same. This arose a manifold of controversies with how issues such as tariffs, slavery, and land should be handled.Both the Union and the Confederacy tried to create compromises to resolve these problems, yet both sides were never completely satisfied no matter how hard they tried. This made it very close to impossible for them to completely put their differences at ease. As the north began to grow more industrially, the south stuck to their farms that were mainly maintained by slaves. This brought up a difficult dispute with the matter of how tariffs should be handled.Since the north became indust rial, it was more efficient of them to impose tariffs on the country to better their economy. Because instead of the people of the north getting better deals purchasing goods from Europe, the higher tariffs made it harder and cost them more to do business with Europe, as result they purchased goods from local businesses. This proved to be a major problem for the south because the high tariffs levels threatened their cotton exports and goods imports from their main buyers and sellers, the Europeans.This angered the south because the tariffs favored the North by protecting them from foreign competition such as with the Tariff of Abominations, so called by the south, in 1828. The tariff forced the South to buy manufactured goods from U. S. manufacturers, mainly in the North, at a higher price, while southern states also faced a reduced income from sales of raw materials. But then the tariff of 1832 was addressed by Andrew Jackson to further lower the tariffs, but the south was still no t satisfied with this compromise and this lead to the nullification controversy.As a result of the threat of nullification, Henry Clay said it was impracticable for South Carolina to nullify and not smart to secede (Doc A). So he and John C. Calhoun proposed the Compromise Tariff of 1833 to further lower the rates gradually which still didn’t prove to achieve anything do to the fact of the Black Tariff of 1842 where tariffs were nearly doubled. Thus, ruling out compromise as a solution to their differences on the matter of tariffs. The economy of the north and south were so different the way they ran their usiness, it did not agree. One problem for the south is that the north wanted for them to free slaves or at least the to stop the expansion of it. Some of the north felt that it was morally unjust and that it went against the declaration of independence which stated â€Å"All men are created equal â€Å". But others like the Free-Soil Party viewed it as economically ineff icient and an obsolete institution. If slaves were emancipated their labor force and profit would disappear.And in the Anti-Slavery Society, they call slave holders â€Å"man stealers† and say that slavery is contrary to God’s law, which makes laws endorsing slavery invalid (Doc. B). The south demanded that all bills abolishing slavery be disregarded (Doc. C). The south saw the north barbaric for the work conditions and low wages their textile laborers were put through (Doc. F). The north and south had proposed many compromises to resolve this problem; but this couldn’t happen because the South’s profit came from their cotton exportation which was in the need of slaves.The North had made compromises even to stop the expansion of slavery such as the Missouri Compromise from 1819 to 1821, but it was viewed by some people such as Jefferson as a so called â€Å"fireball in the night† and was ruled by Supreme Court that Congress had no right to prohibit slavery in territories, as part of the decision in the Dred Scott case. Resulting again in another futile attempt to solve their differences through the method of compromise. The coexistence of a slave owning south with an increasingly anti-slavery north made conflict likely.It was formidable to decide whether such states like the ones gained from the Mexican War should be slavery or anti-slavery, which either way would disrupt the balance between the slave and antislavery states. This divided the Union and Confederacy even further. Later on, President Lincoln sought not to propose federal laws against slavery where it already existed, but he had in his 1858 House Divided speech, expressed a desire to â€Å"arrest the further spread of it â€Å"(Doc. G).Much of the political battle in the 1850s focused on the expansion of slavery into the newly created territories. All of the organized territories were likely to become free soil states which increased the southern movement toward secession. Both north and south assumed that if slavery could not expand it would become nonexistent. Southern fears of losing control of the federal government to anti-slavery forces, and northern feared that the slave power already controlled the government; these thoughts brought the sectional disagreements.The morality of slavery, the scope of democracy, and the economic merits of free labor versus slave plantations caused the Whig and know nothing parties to collapse and the free soil party to arrive, ruining the resolve of compromise. By the year 1860, there seemed to be no way that compromise could not possibly accomplish to peace among the south and the north. The north did not see how slavery could benefit anyone any longer, and the south felt the conditions that industrialization emerged were unacceptable and unlivable.As Politics further divided them, secession or war seemed to be inevitable and soon to come. This ended up creating the Civil War in 1861, an attempt of th e south to break away from the north to keep their beliefs and slavery alive. Unfortunately, this led them to their demise of surrender and forced them to form the United States of America with the north. Therefore, gradually ending slavery and all of contentions between the north and the south, and proving that compromises were a useless attempt of fulfilling this task.

Scientific method

They yet forget another important component which is also supposed to be ffered by the libraries if they are to sustain and increase their membership. This important component is customer care. According to Jamier L. Scott (2002), from Wikipedia defines customer care service as a series of activities designed to enhance the level of customer satisfaction – that is, the feeling that a product or service has met the customer expectation. Thus the customer should feel at home when he or she is in the library and should leave while they are contented that they have really been assisted.Customer care is the watchword in both private and public sectors as e move into the service age of 21st century (De Saez, 2002:126). The client is firmly at the centre of missions and strategic policies. Libraries and information services must demonstrate this constantly and consistently if they are to succeed. The need to feel that one is respected is vital to an individual's concept of self. De S aez (2002:66) argues that a welcoming atmosphere can be created by staff well trained in customer care.This means that I ibrary statt should be knowledgeable in customer care and should see to it that they maintain welcoming environment at all times. Library ustomers or users should be welcomed warmly. De Saez (2002:75) further suggests that however, all library employees be encouraged to recognise their very real role as salespeople for the organisation. Their role will be to make a customer care a high- level priority, presenting a professional face at all times to establish and develop good public relations. Kotler†¦ et al (2008: n. ) says that todays companies are going beyond designing strategies to attract new customers and create transactions with them. Companies are now using customer relations management to retain customers nd build profitable, long-term relationship with them. Likewise libraries should use customer relations management, customer care inclusive, to ret ain their customers or attract new members or users. Once a customer is mistreated and disappointed, he would not want to come back and will definitely be discouraging others from coming to the library sighting his experience of mistreatment as an example.Library staffs need to be nice to their users if they are to continue patronizing the libraries. Rice (1997:17) also argues that if you do not care for your customers you will surely go ut of business. The customer will definitely go where they feel that they are welcomed. This implies that in case of a library they will shun coming to the library and prefer other information sources like the internet where they will not meet hostility. So if people do not come to the library then the library will be dysfunctional.Therefore it is as well very important nowadays, like in any other business institutions for librarians to observe customer care in libraries. 1. 2 Background College of Medicine (COM) is one of the five constituent colle ges of University of Malawi. Other colleges are the Polytechnic in Blantyre, Chancellor College in Zomba, Bunda College of Agriculture in Lilongwe and Kamuzu College of Nursing with campuses in Lilongwe and Blantyre. COM was established in 1991 and enrolled returning students from abroad. Before the College was established, medical students were being sent to Australia, South Africa and the United Kingdom.With the establishments of College of Medicine, the country is now training its own doctors locally. The students' mode of enrollment is in two phases. The first group is that of premedical students. This refers to O-level students. They study A-level science subjects like mathematics, chemistry, biology and physics. After successful completion, they are enrolled for five years in the medical course. The other group is that of students with A-level science subjects obtained from Chancellor College, Kamuzu Academy or any other high school. These students are enrolled straight into t he first year of medical course for five years.COM like any other institution of higher learning has a library at its campus. It is situated along Mahatma Ghandi road. For the first ten years, the library operated from the Polytechnic library complex until October 2000 when it moved to its present location (Mangumbi, 2006:1-2). The library is relatively small and a new and bigger one is under construction which is expected to be occupied by the end of the year 2010. The mission of the library is to support teaching, learning and research activities for the college by providing up-to-date information resources and promoting effective usage of library facilities.The community that the college of medicine serves is composed of the following. All academic, academic related and administration staff; All registered students ot the college tor the entire duration ot their study; Members f University of Malawi; All college of Medicine members of staff; Visiting lectures, research fellows an d other visitors; Interns and other medical personnel and external paid up members. The COM library offers various services to its clientele. These are lending services (long loan and short loan), Reference services, Malawiana and interlibrary services Just to mention a few.In its holding the library also offers electronic resources like e-books and subscribes to online Journals through the Malawi Library and Information Consortium (MALICO), WHO and INASP. The collection includes CD-ROMs and DVDs hich are also lent to people. (College of Medicine 2009 Prospectus) 1. 3 Statement of the problem Although a library may provide a number of services to its clientele it is very important to serve these customers with courtesy and satisfy their needs in a friendly environment. No matter how well stocked the library may be, if it has hostile staff and environment then members will not be attracted to the resources.They will definitely shun the library and opt for other information sources. N ot only that, with information overload such as that available through the internet, some people may ot hesitate to stop patronizing the library if they feel are being ill treated at the library. It is for this reason that a research will be conducted to find out if there are customer services at College of Medicine. The research will find out how clients are being treated if they come to the library. If they have a query, how are they assisted? Are they treated warmly and with courtesy? 1. Aim of the Research The research aims at finding out if the customer care services are available at College of Medicine Library. 1. 5 Specific Research Objectives 1. To find out the customer care services at College of Medicine Library 2. To find out if library staff are always friendly 3. To find out if library staff are eager to assist library users. 4. To find out user satisfaction, 5. To find out how library staff treat customers. 6. To find out if queries are solved peacefully and amicably. 1. 6 Research Questions 1 . How do library staffs welcome you in the library i. e are you greeted when you reach the counter? . Are they always willing and eager to assist when you need a special help at the counter or in the library in general? 3. How do you rate friendliness of staffs? 4. Which group of library staff is friendly? . Do you have any suggestion on how best the library can improve its customer care services? 1. 7 Significance of the Study The study will assist the library management to make recommendations in coming up with plans on how to improve the customer care services in order to retain its clientele and encourage those that are graduating to continue being members and patronize the library.Scope and Limitations Since the research will only focus on students, the findings will not reflect the real results that are on the ground. It would have been better if the research involved all ossible library members. Lack of enough time and money will also be a limiting f actor to this research. 3. 0 METHODOLOGY Research methodology is a process whereby data is collected for the research project. It is simply a set of procedures and methods used to carry out a research. Macmillan and Schumacher (1997:n. ) define research methodology as a design whereby a researcher selects data collection instruments and uses analysis procedures to investigate specific research problems. On the other hand, research methodologies according to Powell and Connaway (2004:286-287) refer to strategies urrounding the use of multiple methods of data collection as required by different types of attempts to achieve higher degree of reliability and validity. This involves gathering the opinions of people on a particular topic. Neuman (2000:122) has divided methodology into categories thus quantitative and qualitative.Qualitative research stresses the experiences and meanings of phenomenon. While quantitative puts emphasis on the empirical exploration and explanation of phenomen on, where generalization from the sample to population is the goal (Newman & Benz, 1998 n p). This research will use quantitative and qualitative methods to allow the researcher to get the in-depth information form students on how they are treated in the library. 3. 1 Research Method This basically is the specific method that is used in a research. Social sciences use various methods in research but the common one is survey method.Powell & Connaway (2004:61) define research method as specific means of collecting data. One of the research methods used in social science is survey. Survey is the research strategy where one collects data from all or part of a population to assess the relative ncidence, distribution and interrelations of naturally occurring variables (Powell 2004:61). Aina and AJiferuke (2002:32) observe that a social survey research involves a systematic and comprehensive collection of information about the opinions, attitudes, feelings, beliefs and behavior of people.T herefore this research will use survey method as it is widely used in social sciences, and library and information science being one of them. It is also flexible because a wide range of data can be collected. 3. 2 Target Population According to Powell (2004:84) population is the total of all cases that conform to a re-specified criterion or set of criteria. He further states that the population is the aggregate of units to which one wishes to generalize the results of a research study. Since COM is still young, its population is not as big as its other sister colleges.It has the population of 585 students in its various programs. So this means that the population of this research will be based on the population of the college which is 585 students. The population of the students is presented in table below. Table 1: Population size for students COURSE NUMBER OF STUDENTS Premedical Students 160 Pharmacy Students 71 Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS ) Students 298 Medica l Laboratory Science 51 Total number of Students Source: College of Medicine library user's register, May 2010 3. Sampling Methods Sample as defined by Lo Biondo-Wood and Haber (1998:250) is a portion or a subset of research population selected to participate in a study, representing the research population. Stratified simple random will be used to get the participants. In this method the population will be divided into strata. The population of students will be divided according to courses, levels of study, male and female and then selected randomly. The method is advantageous because it guarantees fair representation of different segments of population and biasness is minimized. 3. Sample Size Chowdhury (2008:83) defines sample as the sub-group of a population to be studied. Sample is a small amount of something or quantity or part of something to be used for study in a research. But Powell (2004:193) defines sample as a selection of units from the total population to be studied. Leedy and Ormrod (2005:207) argues that the larger the sample, the smaller the amount of sampling error. However, a larger sample does not guarantee good results if it is not well represented. The sample size of the students will be calculated at 20% to have a good representation.Table 2 below illustrates the sample size. Table 2: Sample size 32 Pharmacy students 14 Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBBS) Students 59 Medical Laboratory Technology 10 Total number of students 115 3. 5 Research Instruments According to Aina (2004), data collection instruments are instruments used to collect data. Seaman (1991:42) defines data collection instruments as devices used to collect data such as questionnaires, tests, structured interview schedules and checklist. Questionnaires will be used to gather data trom participants tor this study.They have been chosen because they have an advantage of giving respondents an opportunity to respond at their convenient time. Not only that, but are also quick and simple method of reaching a large sample of people. The questionnaires will contain both open and closed ended questions so as to cater for both qualitative and quantitative techniques. 3. 6 Data Collection Procedures Data is information obtained during the course of investigation or study (Polit ; Hungler 1999:267). The questionnaires will be distributed to students who will be dvised not to write their names.The questionnaires will be self-administered by the researcher. 3. 7 Pre-Testing of Research Instruments To ensure reliability and validity, the questionnaires will be tested before distributing them to respondents. 3. 8 Ethical Consideration To ensure confidentiality, all questions will not bear names of the respondents. However, numbers will be assigned on each questionnaire for participants to remain anonymous. As Polit and Hungler (1999:132-134) advise that researchers need to exercise care that the rights of individuals and institutions are safeguarded.Per mission will be sought from the College of Medicine Registrar to conduct the study. And also legal and ethical issues regarding this research will be observed. 3. 9 Data Analysis Data analysis is the technique used to interpret, organize and present data that has been collected. Powell (2004:53) defines data analysis as the process of analyzing the data gathered basically involves coding the responses or placing each item in the appropriate category tabulating the data and performing appropriate statistical computation. The data from questionnaires will be checked and processed using.

IKEA’s Global Sourcing Challenge Essay

1. Marianna Barner should decline the invitation for IKEA to have a representative appear on the upcoming forecast of the German video program. The producers of the documentary invited them to take part in a live discussion during the airing, and while this offer does sound beneficial for IKEA to educate the public and the producers of the current efforts taken to fight child labor, it would not be in their best interest. This is attributed to the fact that the producers refuse to let IKEA preview the video beforehand and that they are aware that the producers â€Å"planned to take a confrontational and aggressive approach† directly aimed at them. As a result, there is a very high possibility that the representative would then be blindsided with questions and then IKEA’s message of their efforts would not be portrayed accurately. Instead, IKEA should respond to the allegations by releasing their own statement allowing them to explain their efforts once they have had the opportunity to review all evidence and verify the credibility. 2. In regards to the supply contract that IKEA has with Rangan Exports, it would be best if Barner terminates the contract, should sufficient evidence prove that they do indeed use child labor. They stress the importance of taking responsibility for their suppliers, and in the IWAY (IKEA Code of Conduct), it clearly states that they do not accept Child Labourm, otherwise their contract will be terminated. The well-regarded company (Rangan) had signed an addendum that explicitly forbids the use of child labor, so it is important that IKEA upholds their standards and codes in order to maintain a fair position with their other suppliers. It would also be wise for her to then issue a statement or press release about the severed ties with the company, stating the reasons for the decision and maintaining integrity by upholding their own policies regarding child labor, so that the public and other suppliers see that they won’t tolerate unethical behavior or violations to their contra ct. 3. It is suggested that IKEA stays in India and continue operations. The long-term strategy that Barner should take regarding continued operations includes maintaining their code of conduct to uphold their image of being responsible for their suppliers and the environment, while also contributing to an improved quality of life for those in India.

Evaluating the Implementation and the Impact of the Mahatma Gandhi Dissertation

Evaluating the Implementation and the Impact of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act, 2005 on the Schedule - Dissertation Example The household livelihood security model allows for a broader and more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between the political economy of poverty, malnutrition, and dynamic and complex strategies that the poor use to negotiate survival. The model places particular emphasis on household actions, perceptions and choices. People are constantly being required to balance food procurement against the satisfaction of other basic material and non-material needs (Maxwell and Frankenberger 1992). India in its preamble of the constitution ensure all the citizens to social - economic and political justice. After Independence government of India refine its policy and programme time to time to achieve above mention objectives but still India has world’s largest number of poor people living in a single country. According to GOI, 2002 around 260 million people are living below poverty line. Rural area yields a poverty ratio of 28.3 per cent, 25.7 per cent in urban areas and 27.5 per cent for the country as a whole (Government of India 2008) Therefore, considering poverty alleviation as border objective, The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), 2005, is one of the most constructive efforts by the government of India to provide livelihood security to rural people by providing statutory entitlement of 100 days wage-employment in a financial year to household. This act aims to (A) increase the purchasing power of the rural people, (B) attempt to bridge the gap between rich and poor of the country, (C) primarily provide work to people living below poverty line in rural India, and (D) 50% of the total labour must be women. This act is covering almost 72.2% (census of India 2001) of the total population of the rural India. Considering its claims to impact the livelihood of rural population, most of whom are tribals in the villages to be studied, therefore it is necessary to study the implementation and impact of this act on rural trib al villages of India. The study would explore the impact exclusively on the tribal population of three villages from three tribal blocks Chhota-Udepur, Kawant and Pavijetpur of Baroda district. 1.1 Subject MGNREGA was born out of a long and painful labour of India’s struggle against poverty. Before it were programmes after programmes that was supposed to be intended to help the poorest sections of India but the trauma of the colonial rule was too fresh for India to fully focus on the future and not worry about the ghosts of the past. MGNREGA came at a time when the country learned enough lessons from past successes and failures in planning and implementing poverty alleviation programme. MGNREGA’s objective maybe divided into three elements, short-term, medium-term, and long-term. The short-term involvs the provision of employment to everyone who needs one for at least 100 days in a year. Everyone that has no skill and no other source of living or chance for employment is qualified to get this assistance. The jobs are designed exactly to fit the fact that most these people who will avail of them are unskilled due to the lack of access and finances to get themselves education. This first goal weaves into the medium-term plan which involves the utilization of natural assets and using the products and services the people will make and create an

Business Environment Analysis Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Business Environment Analysis - Case Study Example Socio-cultural: The population of U.K is getting more conscious about the problems related to obesity and health. Any product having the health effecting ingredients can lead to the loss of market share. The main strategy of the Innocent Smoothies is the manufacture of juices made with fresh, not concentrated juices. Hence the company uses the strategy of product differentiation. The company keeps on innovating new recipes fulfilling the demands of all ages from babies to youngsters and adults. The company has achieved a cutting edge as compare to other competitors by preserving the natural ingredients of the fruits in the smoothies. "Over-processed foods have higher GI ratings as they are more easily absorbed into the bloodstream, so innocent's refusal to use processed concentrates lowers GI scores further. Professor Millward, a top government advisor on nutrition, states quite clearly that "innocent smoothies contain all the phytoprotectants, fibre, vitamins and minerals that are naturally found in fruit. They are an important part of a healthy dietary lifestyle, replacing both undesirable drinks, which are essentially nutrient free and snacks which increase intakes of fat and salt." Full huma Full human based GI tests conducted by Reading Scientific Services in May 2005 showed average scores in

Privacy of Social Networking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Privacy of Social Networking - Essay Example Various social networking corporations have tried to raise public awareness about the privacy implications of social networking. Arguably, many online users do not take enough time to carefully read and understand the user agreements required by all social networks, and in most cases, they do sign over their privacy rights to these companies so as to access popular social networks. Arguably, data privacy refers to â€Å"freedom from unauthorized intrusion† (Zheleva and Getoor 277). In regard to personal information, privacy refers to â€Å"the right or desire of individuals to control the release of information about themselves† (Altshuler 234). This paper provides a very thoughtful discussion on the privacy of social networking and noting what online users should do in order to protect their privacy. Basically, social networking sites such as facebook, twitter, Linkedin, and MySpace among others are in most cases used to stay in touch with friends, share information, and make new friends. Studies reveal that there are many active users of these social networks worldwide, and that many college students rely on the internet and social networks to connect with other people almost every day (Timm & Duven 89). While these sites serve as a great way to stay in touch with friends, finding new friends, post pictures, share information among others, these sites are also very popular for people with bad intentions like to hack sent messages and stalk others. Stalking is a severe problem that many online users face (Reiher 10). While most people using social networking services are well intentioned, every online user of social networks need to be careful about the information they share online, and how they protect it because some people can intentionally use the information of a person av ailable online to embarrass, steal their identity and damage their reputation. Therefore, all online users need to consider

Essay 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 13

2 - Essay Example However, Etzioni claims that these jobs do not provide educational advancement due to their highly structured nature (Etzioni 303). The jobs offer many skills without considering the length of time the employees need to acquire these skills. In addition, there are evidences of many students dropping out of schools to take up the low-skill jobs on full-time basis. Supporters of teen jobs claim that the jobs help poor performing students in academic and those from lower-class families get income and some training. However, Etzioni refutes the claim by arguing that the jobs only perpetuate the students’ unfortunate statuses. Many teens in these part-time jobs also work for too long, approximately 30 hours per week. Hence, they lack enough time to attend to their schoolwork. Others also claim that teen jobs offer an opportunity for teens to learn teamwork and work under supervision. However, they tend to teach the wrong kind of compliance. Furthermore, the control is tight and inappropriate because most places of work try to save on cost by employing teens instead of an adult figure in the supervising position (Etzioni 305). Thus, the teens cannot get a chance of learning from an elderly, more knowledgeable, and stricter supervisor. Consequently, inappropriate teen values dominate in these places, fueling degradation of values among young sters. Additionally, parents cannot precisely evaluate the money that the youths receive. In most cases, the teens channel most of their earnings to purchasing youthful status symbols that cannot contribute to any meaningful developments. Etzioni’s essay clearly reflects some of the experiences I went through in paid teenage jobs. Most teen employments only provide an opportunity for students to escape responsibilities and school to gratify their desire to embrace the American adult consumerism. In one of my junior years in high school, I Essay 2 Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 11 2 - Essay Example On the other hand, Immanuel Kant developed the Kantian ethics which refers to deontological ethical theory that was developed as a result of enlightenment rationalism which looks at the intrinsic value of an act. If the act is intrinsically good, then it can be decided that the act has good will in it and it can be adopted as a good act. Kant developed categorical imperatives which are commands that determine the actions that will be accepted or rejected in a given societal set up. In deciding whether to do an action or not, one must decide whether anyone else will choose your line of thought if faced by a similar dilemma. If the choice would be different then the action should not be done. One should also ensure that the action done is in respect to human beings and not just self-centred. The two theories have a number of things in common. First they uphold doing what is good to humanity. Unitarianism ensures that one evaluates the magnitude of the consequences and whether the positive results will out-weigh the negative ones. Kantian ethics emphasizes on the need to do good to the society and doing the actions that are not self-centred. On the contrary the actions done should always reflect on the betterment of the whole societies’ living. This means that the two theories ensures that the actions that individuals will do in a given situation must be analysed well and if the consequences will be positive to the individual and the society then it should be done. For instance, our leaders are often faced with situations where they have to make decisions that can either be of benefit to themselves or the whole society. Being the lawmakers in parliament, they can use their mandated powers to draft laws that can increase their salaries and benefits at the expense of the tax-payers money. In such a situation the decision to do such an act should be driven by an evaluation of the

The Function of Ethical Leadership as an Essential Factor in Thesis

The Function of Ethical Leadership as an Essential Factor in Successful Organizations - Thesis Example This research is based on understanding the concept of ethical leadership in the context of organizational success. The study has extensively reviewed the earlier researches conducted and has focused on the features of ethical leaders that include their being honest, daring, forthright, strong and capable of influencing others. The positive contributions of the ethical leadership concept on organizations have also been found in several companies, some of which have been taken as examples for the study. The study has reflected how ethical leadership has and can positively influence companies towards achieving their organizational goals and thus act as an essential factor in achievement of organizational success. Leadership has been widely defined as â€Å"a process of social influence in which one person is able to enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common task† (Chemers, 1997, p.1). Thus leadership can be understood as an activity performed by a gr oup where one may be leading the group. Organizations require leaders and leadership in the context of achieving organizational goals and objectives encountering all internal and external factors (Chemers, 1997, pp.1-3). Leadership that represents the power to direct others towards attainment of common goals within organizations has a major effect on the ethical issues of an organization particularly in decision making processes. Leaders have been associated with the motivation of employees and settlement of norms of an organization. They are capable of positively affecting the different policies through effective performances of the organizational members. Often the head of an organization like the chief executive officer and other managers are considered as the most important organizational leaders; however the roles of the board members are equally significant in the decision making of organizational objectives (Oluseyi & Hammed, 2009, p.8). The ethics and leadership are thus ass ociated significantly towards

What are GMOs What is the controversy that sounds them Essay

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Motivation Theories in Organizational Behavior Assignment

Motivation Theories in Organizational Behavior - Assignment Example A person will be motivated to satisfy needs at the lowest level before focus shifts to needs at the next level. The levels are physiological security, affiliation, esteem, and self-actualization needs. An employee, according to the theory, is for example motivated by need for food and shelter but these cease to be motivators once their needs are met. Job security and social ties then becomes motivators as the employee progresses in work (Koontz, 2009). McClelland’s learnt needs theory explains that three needs, that people learn from their environments are motivators. These are need to attain desired objectives, need for interpersonal relations, and need for power. The notion that promotion can grant a person authority and connection with people from a higher circle in a profession may for example motivate an employee into hard work (Lunenburg and Ornstein, 2011). According to the theory, a person is motivated by four factors, singularly or in combination. The factors are drive to acquire, bond, learn, and defend. The drive to bond may for example motivate teamwork for interpersonal relations among team members (White, 2006). Vroom’s expectancy theory establishes a link between goals and means of achieving the goals towards motivation. According to the theory, people realize motivation into objectives if the cost of achieving the objective is justified and if available means to the objective promises success. An employee may for example be motivated into further training towards promotion if necessary resources are worth the promotion and if the training actually promises probability of the targeted promotion (Condrey, 2010). Adam’s equity theory explains motivation from input-output perspective. According to the theory, an individual is motivated if the perceived input in a venture is equivalent to perceived output. This means that a manager is motivated when he is convinced of efficiency in his efforts (Lussier and Achua,

Flag Protection Act of 1989 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Flag Protection Act of 1989 - Essay Example (2) This subsection does not prohibit any conduct consisting of the disposal of a flag when it has become worn or soiled. (c) Nothing in this section shall be construed as indicating an intent on the part of Congress to deprive any State, territory, possession, or the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico of jurisdiction over any offense over which it would have jurisdiction in the absence of this section. (d)(1) An appeal may be taken directly to the Supreme Court of the United States from any interlocutory or final judgment, decree, or order issued by a United States district court ruling upon the constitutionality of subsection (a). (2) The Supreme Court shall, if it has not previously ruled on the question, accept jurisdiction over the appeal and advance on the docket and expedite to the greatest extent possible. " 1989 - Subsec. (a). Pub. L. 101-131, Sec. 2(a), amended subsec. (a) generally. Prior to amendment, subsec. (a) read as follows: ''Whoever knowingly casts contempt upon any flag of the United States by publicly mutilating, defacing, defiling, burning, or trampling upon it shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than one year, or both.'' Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 101-131, Sec. 2(b), amended subsec. (b) generally. Prior to amendment, subsec. ... any flag of the United States by publicly mutilating, defacing, defiling, burning, or trampling upon it shall be fined not more than $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than one year, or both.'' Subsec. (b). Pub. L. 101-131, Sec. 2(b), amended subsec. (b) generally. Prior to amendment, subsec. (b) read as follows: ''The term 'flag of the United States' as used in this section, shall include any flag, standard colors, ensign, or any picture or representation of either, or of any part or parts of either, made of any substance or represented on any substance, of any size evidently purporting to be either of said flag, standard, color, or ensign of the United States of America, or a picture or a representation of either, upon which shall be shown the colors, the stars and the stripes, in any number of either thereof, or of any part or parts of either, by which the average person seeing the same without deliberation may believe the same to represent the flag, standards, colors, or ensign of the United States of America.'' Subsec. (d). Pub. L. 101-131, Sec. 3, added subsec. (d). SHORT TITLE OF 1989 AMENDMENT Section 1 of Pub. L. 101-131 provided that: ''This Act (amending this section) may be cited as the 'Flag Protection Act of 1989' [1].'' Texas v. Johnson In first 20 years, the Act was upheld by the local courts and Supreme Court refused to notice it, but then in 1984, during the Republican National Convention in Dallas, Johnson set the flag on fire during the protest. He was convicted of desecration and was sentenced one year in prison and was also fined $ 2000.00. The case went to Supreme Court which affirmed this decision. As a result of this, Congress enacted the Flag Protection Act 1989, according to which, the country's flag should never be desecrated in any form

Torsional pendulum final experiment Essay Example for Free

Torsional pendulum final experiment Essay To improve reliability of my results I will perform 3 runs for each measurement rather than 1, this will allow me to average the 3 results for each measurement which will improve reliability of results, and if there is one of the 3 that does not fit it can be excluded and average the other 2. I will no longer need to do 5 oscillations and then divide by 5 as the accuracy of the readings by the light gate ensures that the experimental error will already be eliminated as human error and reaction time no longer applies. Â  I will scale up parts of the experiment which produced larger than expected error. Therefore I will use a larger diameter of wire, which will therefore reduce the percentage error as the accuracy of the micrometer will still be the same. Â  The time period was where the majority of the errors occurred in the preliminary. Therefore I am going to use a light gate to measure the time period, this will reduce error on the time period significantly. It will eliminate the human error as the error due human reaction time will no longer apply. There will only be a reading error now, which is far less significant than the experimental error. I will use a range of lengths from 100-500mm rather than 100-800mm, as when the length becomes very long the bar on the bar on the wire tends to wobble a lot more than when a shorter length is used. Therefore I am hoping this will further reduce the error in the time period. I will go up by 50mm each time so that I get a suitable number of results. Aim: Investigate the effect of changing the length of wire on the time period for a Torsional pendulum. Equipment: Â  Retort Stand with clamp to hold the wire and bar when oscillating and to hold the motion sensor. Bung cut into two halves so I can change length of the wire easily and hold the wire tightly. Â  Metal Bar which will move through the motion sensor to give time periods. Approximately 0. 700,m long wire( extra 200mm to allow for tying wire and excess at top of clamp to easily be able to change length) Â  Laptop with Sensing science (graph) software which logs the data in real time. Â  Light gate including easy sensor and cables, this will measure the time period. Micrometer to measure diameter of the wire. Â  Meter long ruler to measure out correct lengths of wire and measure length of the bar. Diagram: Fair test. It is important to make the experiment fair to ensure reliability of results. The following must be considered when carrying out my experiment. Â  Ensure the same bar is used for each run so that these constants (mass and length) dont change. Ensure the diameter of the wire is the same for the whole length, take readings at regular intervals on the wire to be sure. Turn 90 degrees anticlockwise for each time period measured, as the twist on the wire will be different otherwise. Also ensure that before turning 90 degrees that the wire and bar are in the equilibrium position, 0 angular displacement / no twist. Theory: As I predicted in the preliminary I expect the time period to increase as the length of wire increases, this is due to the equation derived in my research above. T=2? Where theoretically the relationship between time period and length should be T? L0. 5. However, from the equation I can see that the diameter is to the power of 4, therefore even a very small change in diameter will cause a major difference in the time period, therefore using a greater diameter will cause the denominator to be much larger and so the overall time period will be significantly lower. For example I will expect the time period for 0. 1m to be significantly less than 6. 162s, which is obtained from the preliminary using a smaller diameter. Using the theory above I can make a predicted graph of what I am expecting from my log log graph, by simply putting the lengths into the formula, as I already have the measured diameter of wire, length and mass of bar. This is what I obtained. This shows that I should obtain exactly 0. 5 as the gradient and the R squared correlation should be as close to 1 as possible to represent a strong correlation Method: Â  Set up the apparatus shown above, connect lead into laptop and open sensing science software, select com1. Set the time to 30 seconds and tick light gate sensor.* Measure the length of the bar using a meter ruler and the mass using a scale. Â  Get two 700mm copper wires and tie them together ensuring that the diameter is constant for the whole length. Then connect the wire to the metal bar, attach the wire to the bung and tighten. Measure the diameter of the wire at a few intervals and ensure that it is the same, record this diameter. Rotate the bar 90 degrees anticlockwise and let go, and at the same time press on run on the laptop. Allow the bar to complete 3 oscillations; this would be 2 peaks, 3 times, as shown below. Once 3 oscillations are complete then click the stop button. Click on interval and hold and drag from one peak to 2 peaks later, this will give you the time period for one oscillation. Record this in a suitable format and do the same for the next 2 oscillations. Â  Repeat this process for lengths 100-500mm going up by 50mm each time, this will ensure I have enough results to be able to have a good graph. Results: As you can see from the first graph without the logs, the relationship is that an increase in length causes an increase in time period. This was the prediction I made and also that the time periods would be significantly less than the preliminary due to a greater diameter of wire. I also added an R squared value to my log log graph; this gives me the strength of the correlation. With 1 being the highest, mine was 0. 9868, which shows very strong correlation.

The Importance Of Street Lighting Construction Essay

The Importance Of Street Lighting Construction Essay Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Street lighting ensures safety to literally every citizen in Sri Lanka by providing guidance and direction across the vast territories throughout the country. Citizens have grown accustomed to driving the streets, rural roads and busy urban thoroughfares, relying on improved visibility and safety afforded them by generous lighting conditions provided by several street light standards of the roadways. Similarly, the safety and ability to maneuver along walkways and sidewalks, in both congested and remote areas, is tremendously enhanced for pedestrians and cyclists. Street lights must be designed therefore to minimize glare and render enhanced colour recognition to meet peoples visual needs in observing objects. 1.2 Importance of Street Lighting Street lighting is an essential public service that provides a safer environment at nighttime to commuters as well as pedestrians. Proper use of street lighting can be considered as a protective method which provides economic and social benefits to the people including: Elimination in night time accidents and economic loss Aid to police protection and enhanced sense of personal security Facilitation of smooth traffic flow Promotion of business activities and the use of public interactions during the night hours. While this service is commonly available in developed countries, there is a shortage of proper street lighting facilities in many areas in developing countries due to lack of financial resources. The lack of adequate light at night has given rise to poor living conditions and as such, street crimes, and other mishaps are commonplace. Street lighting is perhaps more interesting topic for politicians to gain their supporters. It is the most conversable topic among people and essential activity of local authorities, Pradesheya Sabhas and municipalities where the electrical consumption can be considered as having a totally stable load pattern (kWh) during designated operating hours for each and every day. The number of lights and power requirements stay relatively steady over the nightly operating period. The only real variation is the quantity of operating hours each evening as determined by the time of the year. On the other hand, some degree of weather is varying where photo cell control systems exist during dark and misty time periods where areas like upcountry. As such, we have very predictable load patterns and energy values for street lighting that mostly operate including peak power extracting time periods considering the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) national grid. One opportunity to address the demand-side of this issue is to save electricity via technological upgrades of street lighting with the help of municipalities and local authorities. Electricity used for streetlights accounts for up to 1.1% of electricity used by national grid stated in Statistical digest in 2011, published by CEB. It is worth noting that large amount of non-metered street lighting profiles exhibit a steady state operation on a month by month basis despite the fact that the new street lamp installations have been grown by 30% annually as revealed by street lamp census in 2010. This strategy will be worst during the election periods. Thus, the virtual billing value which is submitted by local authorities to the power and energy ministry, do not truly represent the actual load profiles. In response to the plotting of the billing information, both municipalities and local authorities have to be taken action to ensure true representation of load profiles with representing of CEB personnel to witness the actual requirements of the street lighting equipments. The electrical energy consumption of street lighting constitutes an important part of total energy consumption. Saving energy in street lamps is therefore important for total energy savings. It is known that street lighting levels are excessive in many cases. For instance, in the case of low traffic volumes, the lighting levels are excessive and could be reduced so that energy savings can be achieved. On the other hand, in specific situations and for traffic safety reasons, light levels should be increased even in the case of low traffic volume. Reductions in energy consumption through the installation of modern lighting equipment, control and management practices have a direct impact on the level of greenhouse gas emissions from street lighting. Reductions in greenhouse gas emissions are directly related to reductions in energy consumption; hence the potential savings are of the same order and vice versa. 1.3 Motivation This research keeps the focus on energy efficiency measures in the street lighting sector. The street lighting situation in Sri Lanka is still largely dominated by inefficient technologies, most importantly standard incandescent, low efficiency fluorescent tube or mercury and sodium vapour lamps. Although cost-effective when regarded over the full lifespan of the lamp, more efficient options, such as light emitting diodes (LEDs), induction lamps and solar powered systems struggle to penetrate the market. Several promotion programs for energy efficient lighting can be found by the government in recent past ( reference). This research is concerned with possibilities to promote the approach of energy efficient street lighting technologies for grid-connected or off grid usage in Sri Lanka. This approach is initiated to evaluate the economic, technical, and operational feasibility of replacing the existing street lamps with LED light sources. Specifically, the following areas were evaluated as part of this research: Energy and maintenance cost savings of LED lamps over the existing street lamps Energy and maintenance cost savings of solar powered LED lamps over the existing street lamps Optimum luminance that should be maintained on various roads and streets in compliance with British and IESNA standards and comparable those to the streets lighted by the existing High Pressure Sodium (HPS) vapour lamps which were installed in most of the town and highly congested areas where more luminance is needed. Cost-effectiveness of deploying a photocell or timer switching for street lamp operation. The energy and maintenance cost savings are key inputs to the cost-effectiveness analysis of LED. The performance metrics in the economic analysis includes simple payback as well as the net present value of cost savings over the lifetime of the LED fixtures. This research findings point out the key market barriers for technology uptake in the street lighting sector and discusses the current state of technology promotional programs. 1.4 Objectives of the research The first objective of the research is to get an inventory verification of various kinds of street lamps connected in all over the country and secondly, to analyze the performance of existing lamps and its control systems. Road surface luminance is one of the control parameters in intelligent road lighting control systems. The third objective is to identify the optimized luminance intensity on the roads as part of assessment for efficient street lighting systems. The final objective is to find a best option for energy efficient street lighting. At present, in urban roadway lighting applications, High Pressure Sodium (HPS) and mercury vapour lamps which are the most widely used light sources. In semi urban and rural area road lighting, fluorescent lamps and CFL is widely applied. LEDs are fast developing light sources and are considered as one promising light source for general lighting. However, LEDs are not used already for street lighting applications in Sri Lanka, since the initial cost of LED is very high as yet. Currently, HPS lamps are the dominant light source used in street lighting because of long lamp life time and high luminous efficacy. The research assessment is a comparative life cycle assessment including other economical analysis which was performed on Incandescent lamp, Fluorescent lamp, High Pressure Sodium (HPS) lamp, Mercury Vapour lamp, Induction lamp and Light Emitting Diode (LED) streetlight technologies. It also focused on the categories of energy efficiency, light quality, global warming affects ect. The majority of streetlights are individually controlled by manual operation and some are by photocell and timer switch. It is revealed that some local authorities such as Colombo Municipal Council (CMC), have installed and upgraded a system that allow light levels to be controlled in certain time periods in addition to the photocell operation. Maintenance of streetlights consists almost entirely of replacing burnt bulbs or other defective components. Lights controlled by photocell are not monitored remotely in Sri Lanka and are replaced when reported by complaints of people or noticed during regular inspections. Bulb replacement is performed by relevant local authorities or municipalities. 1.5 Outline of this Report This research conducted a detailed study of how to implement an energy efficient street lighting technologies in Sri Lanka. This study provides the data and analysis necessary to evaluate whether changing existing street lighting system is a worthwhile investment, not only economically but environmentally as well. The adoption of newer technologies could save the millions of rupees in each year by minimizing both energy and environmental costs while reserving them to invest in other infrastructure upgrades. This thesis consists of seven chapters including the literature review, methodology, case studies, economic analysis and results, and discussion. The literature review is the chapter 2 which explains the basics behind street lighting, the different types of lighting technologies, how they work, how they affect the environment, and how they meet current lighting requirements along with their advantages and disadvantages. The methodology chapter explains how the study was conducted with a detailed explanation of both methodologies and economic calculations. This chapter presented a series of calculations to verify the data which are relevant to this study. How the data was applied to these methodologies will also be explained in chapter 3. This research thesis consists of three case studies. First one is the basic structure of this thesis, so that, the street lamp survey conducted to find out the total no of lamps in the country. It gives a basic understanding of the main end-use applications and target sectors of the different lamp types, control systems and an idea of the energy efficiency potential available in the street lighting sector. The second is illumination evaluation for HPS lamps connected in Galle road section. The auto operated street lighting system implemented in Balangoda town area and street lighting control system conducting in Sri Lanka also discussed as the case study 3 in this chapter. All these case studies are presented in chapter 4. The chapter 5 consists of economic analysis for all case studies and sets the insights gained throughout the research is enlightened by economic analysis. The economic performance was calculated as simple-payback for substitution of LED and solar powered LED soluti ons to the existing lamps that includes in accounting for lamp life-span, maintenance costs, and electrical costs. Conclusion chapter covers the results from the study to include their sensitivity to changes in costs associated with power production, maintenance costs, fixture costs, and service life. Environmental costs with carbon emissions savings and impacts were also calculated and discussed with regards to the different lighting technologies including solar powered stand along LED system. Finally, discussion chapter reviews the findings of this study and recommends the course of action that should be taken for implementation of energy efficient street lighting along with areas for future research.

Contribution Of Media In Society Media Essay

Contribution Of Media In Society Media Essay Media is very important to the society. People are using the media to get the news or information from television, radio and video. For example, television is a source of media that has strong influence on society today. According to the survey, people mostly spend their time on television and internet for getting news and for entertainment. But the impacts of television and computer have both positive and negative. For the advantages of television and internet, we can get the news and information quickly and more convenient. And some time, we also can have some entertainment for relax. We also can keep connect to our friend from other place by internet. Media also can help us keep up with the trend of the society. Most company will use the media to promote their companyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s product. With the impact of media, their product will soon be all well known. We also can use media to promote the health awareness to the society to help the people gain the knowledge to know what will affect their health. Furthermore, we also can use media to teach the people about the knowledge of self-defenses. For example, we can see the video of self-defenses on television in our home or the small television on the train. The video will teach the female how to protect themselves when they facing a robber. The media play an important role to tell us the truth of everything that happens in our society. Besides that, media is not only delivering the information to us. It also will affect our thinking patterns. For example, if we let our children watch the moral educational program; they will learn some moral value from the program. Furthermore, they also will know what their responsibilities to the society are. Media also will provide some entertainment to the people. When you feel stress, you can go to the internet and find some music to hear or just watching the movie from internet. And the most important thing is we can save the money for go to the cinema to watch a movie. Media also can help we stay connect with our friends and family. Now have many social media like Facebook and Twitter, we can share our new feeds, photo and video to our friends and family. Some companies also use the social media to communicate to their sponsor or their stakeholder. For another example, we also can use the mobile phone to text messages or make a call to the others. Besides that, the media affect people not only through television. They also use the radio and newspaper to deliver the information of the society to the people. The advertising media is a communication of marketing and used to promote something. This type of media can make the product become more vivid and attractiveness to attract people comes to buy their product. Because of this, this type of media plays an important role to the company. Then, the broadcasting media is a distribution of audio and video content, it usually used for a radio. The radio is using this type of media to send out the informat ion (voice and sound) to the people so the people can get the information when they turn on the radio. Furthermore, digital media also helps the people doing their computer job. For example, they may save their information in the hard drives for future use, because hard drives also known as a digital media. Then, the electronic media is used for electronic communication, such as television, radio, telephone, desktop computer and more. Next is the hypermedia, it is a generally non-linear medium of information because it was created by graphic, audio, video, plain text and hyperlinks intertwine. There have some computer program are using this media, such as Adobe Player, Adobe Director, Macromedia Authorware and more. Then we will talk about the multimedia. The multimedia is usually used to record and play, and it is a combination of text, audio, still images, animation, video, or interactivity content form. And the multimedia devices are electronic devices used to store and experience multimedia content. The mass media is very important to the society also because people mostly get the news or information from the mass media. The mass media is using the broadcast media to transmit their information electronically and comprises television, radio, and firm. Besides that, print media use a physical object as a mean of sending their information, such as newspaper, comic, magazine and more. Other than that, mass media also included in in internet media, due to many mass media services it provides, such as e-mail, websites, blogging and more. By this reason, people also can get the information on the internet. Another example is the outdoor media. The outdoor media is a mass media that comprises billboards, signs, placards placed inside or outside the shopping mall and more. Now the media mostly is digital media so the media become very more important to us already. Come to today, media has become as important as food and clothing. There is no denial that the media is playing important roles in our life. With the medium of media whether it is radio, television, newspaper or internet, we are able to connect with the world or a large number of people around us. Especially is the internet, people are using the internet every day to search something or working. If without internet, we may feel missing something in our life. Conclusion, media is playing an important role in our society. With the effect of media, we can get to know the information or the problem that we are facing now in our society, so media has a huge contribution to our society.

The Catcher in the Rye :: essays research papers

The Catcher in the Rye   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In Jerome David Salinger’s book The Catcher in the Rye the difficulties In Holden’s life sends you through a thrilling adventure through all Holden have been through. The short story Uncle Wiggly in Connecticut also shows the drama of a little girl named Ramona. Ramona has an alcohol addictive mother who thinks Ramona is in serious trouble. Ramona’s mother creates an imagery friend from Ramona to help her out with things and to keep her company while she is playing. In The Catcher in the Rye Holden does not have an imagery friend but he does have friends to talk to when he needs someone to talk to. Through all life’s unexpected happenings Holden and Ramona rose to the occasion or fell to the pressures. The book The Catcher in the Rye is centered on Holden Caulfield, a seventeen-year-old narrator and central character of the novel. He addresses the reader directly from a mental hospital or sanitarium in southern California. Holden begins at Pencey Prep, a private school in Pennsylvania, on the Saturday afternoon of the traditional football game with school rival, Saxon Hall. Holden finds himself in many unusual situations. He keeps running away from home and not even thinking of turning back. He went to New York one time to experience life there. Holden’s conflicts are like what Salinger had growing up. Holden lost a very important person to him, his brother. Salinger also lost many close family members too. In the end Holden is at the sanitarium in California. He doesn’t want to tell us any more. The whole story has only made him miss people, such as his brother. The short story â€Å"Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut† was another short story written by Salinger. In Uncle Wiggily in Connecticut, Eloise an alcoholic mother believes that her little girl Ramona is in serious trouble. She has a make believe friend named Jimmy who provides her with the entertainment that lacks in her neighborhood. Eloise once loved Walt Glass, who died over seas in an explosion. Seeking a love for replacement, she found Lew whose role in this story is that he once referred to Eloise's hurt ankle as uncle wiggily. In a drunken rage, Eloise forces her daughter to sleep in the middle of her bed. This is also related to The Catcher in the Rye and Salinger’s life in the fact that everyone has lost a loved one in their life.

James A. Garfield :: essays research papers

James A. Garfield James A. Garfield was born in Cuyahoga County, Ohio, in 1831. His father died in 1833, when Garfield was only two years old and so his mother had to carry on working the family farm by herself. With the death of his father, the family feel into poverty. Even though they had very little money, his mother made sure that her children went to the neighborhood school to get a good education. He belonged to the Desciples of Christ Church. While growing up, James drove canal boat teams, and earned enough money to further his education at college. He attended Western Reserve Eclectic Institute at Hiram, Ohio, and was graduated from Williams College in 1856. He returned to Western Eclectic Institute and became a classics professor. Later, he became the president of the College. In 1858, he was married to Lucretia Rudolph and had seven kids. Eliza, Harry, James, Mary, Irvin, Abram, and Edward. James Garfield was an advocate for free-soil principles and soon became a supporter of the newly organized Republican Party. And in 1859, he was elected to the Ohio Legislature. During the succession crisis, he advocated coercing the seceding states back into the Union. During the Civil War, he helped to recruit the 42nd Ohio Volunteer Infantry and became the infantry's colonel. He fought at Shiloh in April 1862, served as a chief of staff in the Army of the Cumberland, saw action at Chickamauga in September of 1863. When the Union victories had been few in 1862, he successfully led a brigade at Middle Creek, Kentucky, against Confederate troops. And in 1862, at the age of 31, he became brigader general, only to be made a major general in 1863. Meanwhile, in 1862, he was elected by fellow Ohioans to The United States House of Representatives. He was persuaded by President Lincoln to resign his army job and remain in Congress. Said Lincoln, "It is easier to find major generals than to obtain effective Republicans for Congress." Garfield held his House seat for 18 years by winning repeated elections and became the leading Republican in the House. As Chairman of the House committee on Appropriations, he became an expert on fiscal matters. He also advocated a high protective tarriff, and sought a firm policy of Reconstruction for the South. In 1880, he was elected to the United States Senate. At the Republican Convention in 1880, he failed to win the Presidential nomination for his friend, John Sherman, but became the "dark horse" nominee on the 36th ballot. In November 1880, he became the 20th President, winning with a

Visual Description Nefertiti

For my visual description, I decided to write about Infertility from Outmost, created between BCC. Infertility represents royalty, and many women view her as a symbol for beauty. Found in the city of Kathleen along other items in the sculptor studio that represented the royal family. This three dimensional limestone sculpture standing 20†³ tall, represents the wife of Pharaoh Generate. Modeling her face to make it look subtle, the artist used very thin layers of plaster.Looking at this sculpture, one would feel as they are looking at a life like person, which is why it's remarkable. The plaster starts thin to define her face and becomes thicker when creating the neck and the head dress. The pupil of the right eye was created with what appears to be black paint, but the left eye doesn't have a pupil present. Infirmities teal colored crown, has a gold band looped around the bottom.A ribbon is wrapped around her crown, with each end stopping above her left and right ear. A erasures (signifying royalty) is above brow on the headdress, yet broken. The skin and bone structure, very much symmetrical can be shown as elegant as she looks. The artist used a contour technique to create her face, high cheekbones and the hollowness of her cheeks.. Looking at the lines used, it can be seen as subtle movements. The carved movements, help create amazing cheekbone structure.From her headdress to her cheeks, a triangle can be formed, continuing to the lines of her neck, under her chin a perfect triangle Is created. This sculpture In the round when viewed from the side, can be seen as creating a 90 degree angle. Walking around the sculpture you can see the symmetrical used to create her headdress and make this sculpture life like. Although the damages to the ear and headdress makes you realize how ancient this Is, her beauty seems to travel.

Can Aung San Suu Kyi Really Change Myanmar

Can Aung San Suu Kyi really change Myanmar? The 1991 Nobel Peace Prize winner, Miss Aung San Suu Kyi graduated from the Oxford University, B. A. in philosophy, politics and economics at St. Hugh’s College in 1967 (The Nobel Prize in Peace 1991, 2010). On the 27 May 1990, her party, the National League Democracy (NLD) won 392 out of the 492 seats (Burmese General Election, 1990, 2010). Despite her popularity with the citizens in Myanmar, the military disregards the result of that election.After two decades, the Burmese general election, 2010 will be held on the 7 November and once again the spot light is brought back to the political stage of Myanmar ever since 1990. A question that has always revolved around Aung San Suu Kyi is – can Aung San Suu Kyi really change Myanmar? From my point of view, Miss Aung San Suu Kyi may not really be able change Myanmar. She can change the current situation of Myanmar however not completely; especially in a country that has gone throug h six different political transformations in the last half-century. Firstly, Miss Aung San Suu Kyi is inexperienced and â€Å"new† to Myanmar.Although she was born in Myanmar and had received education there, during the years when Myanmar fell into military dictatorship, 1962, she was studying in a high school in Lady Shri Ram College in New Delhi, 1960 – 1964 (The Nobel Prize in Peace 1991, 2010). She had spent most of her adulthood and received education aboard. Even though she visited her mother annually and had been in Mynmar since 1988, most of the time she is kept under house arrest. One of her quote was â€Å"I saw many aspects of the country which I needed to see in order that I might know what we need to do† (Daw Aung San Suu Kyi Quotes, 1997).Despite so, much of her time is spent serving her house arrest terms. Although she had spent much of her time reading about philosphy, politics and many more books but what she had is mere knowledge she had gained from reading in order to lead a country, experience would be a vital contribution to the people. Miss Aung San Suu Kyi had received most of her education in the western and had worked for the United Nation (UN) for two years. She wrote and did researches for biography of her father (The Nobel Prize in Peace 1991, 2010). In one of her speech she mentioned that â€Å"People have been saying I know nothing of Burmese politics.The trouble is, I know too much. †(Wallechinsky, 1997). It could be true that Aung San Suu Kyi know a lot about Myanmar however some of the decisions she made had shown her inexperience as a leader. An example that show that her inexperienced would be the issue on Myanmar tourisim. There was a report in an August 2008 in which the World Travel and Tourism Council estimated that tourism provides about 5. 8% of Myanmar’s job. All these could had been more if not of Aung San Suu Kyi who asked the travellers to â€Å"visit us later, in 1995 and in 2002 she told the BBC that the NLD stand on tourism â€Å"has not changed† (Myanmar, Should you go, 2009).A report in 2007 from Tourism Concern stated that, many Aung San Suu Kyi supports the boycott â€Å"unless we hear otherwise† from her. It is noted that, one of the British former ambassador to Myanmar, Derek Tonkin calls Aung San Suu Kyi ‘an idealist unable to compromise with the rough reality of Southeast Asian politcs’ (Myanmar, Should you go, 2009). By boycotting the tourisim, it is not the Myanmar government that suffer but the civilains that suffer. The government are not affected since they gets their income from trade of gems, timber, textiles and oil and gas.The tourism sector employs 300,000, not including grassroots business. Creating jobs and incomes for the Burmese, is the way that can really benefit the population. Secondly, despite the overwhelming supports from the citizens in Myanmar, she does not have any supporters from the military. Mya nmar has been under the military rule for 48 years. Even though the people would like to abolish the current military junta, they still need the power of the military and the police to control the stability of the country.When the country starts to reform, it may result in some instability, if Miss Aung Sun Suu Kyi does not have the support and the power to control the military, the country would be in chaos which may lead to undesirable consequences. Most of Miss Aung San Suu Kyi’s influential supporters are from the western countries but the local military junta are not in good terms with the westerners. Without the support of local power, many political goals cannot be achieved. Thirdly, most of her speeches revolve around social reform and few talks about what are their plans for the future.Right now what the people in Myanmar really need is social reforms however; soon other problems would start to surface such as economic factors, the need of jobs will eventually increa se and more. A type of publication that Miss Suu Kyi uses was whenever she is interacting with the media, she would never forget to ask other countries for support – â€Å"please use your liberty to promote ours† (Aung San Suu Kyi, 2010). Currently, she has supporters from all over the world. It is to be believed that if she were to gain presidency of the country, aids will be provided to help her built Myanmar.Yet the sanction that has been in placed on Myanmar has contributed to the sufferings of the citizens. Therefore I strongly feel that it is not way to gain attention that can help Myanmar gain democracy, if it is, it would had worked. The situation in Myanmar is not as simple as what the westerns think to why the military junta had rejected the aids for the May 2008 cyclone. One way to interpret why the military government rejected the aids would be â€Å"The Myanmar’s government †¦ fear of American invasion and the fragile pride of its top official s† (Aung San Suu Kyi, 2010).The western countries often regarded as superior, had sometimes unintentional showed disrespect to the third world countries by not understanding enough of a country’s culture. Hence disregarded the feeling of the citizen of the country they provide help with. Therefore, it is no wonder sometimes the Military junta unwelcome the aids from the westerns. For the upcoming election on the 7 November 2010, Miss Aung San Suu Kyi has decided to boycott the election. Some senior members from the NLD have formed the National Democratic Force (NDF) to contest the election† (Burmese General Election, 1990, 2010) as they claimed that a boycott would play into the hands of the government. The phenomenal of this is that, the members of the NLD has starts to showdoubts in the decision Miss Aung San Suu Kyi made and therfore they left the NLD to form a new party the NDF. This may indicate that her popularity is decreasing, though in a slow rate, as she passes her years under the house arrest. In conclusion, I really admire Miss Aung San Suu Kyi’s courage and what she had been trying to do.Despite being kept under house arrest for two decades, she is still determined to change Myanmar in a way she believes in. Also if it had not been her, the citizens of Myanmar would not have tried to fight for their freedoms and rights. However no matter how determined she is, the military junta will, by all means try to get her out of their way. An example would be her endless loop of house arrest which will cause her to miss the election that is coming up on the 7 November. Moreover the non-violence demonstration had been going on for decades and nothing had really changes ever since they started.If her focus is just on social reform, it can work on a short term basis but not in the long run. Moreover, she is losing support from her own party as she is being too idealistic. She has ideas in mind but has not done anything to realise them . Therefore, I think that, Miss Aung San Suu Kyi may not be able to really change Myanmar.Reference Aung San Suu Kyi. (2010, August 15). Retrieved August 31, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikiquote. org/wiki/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi Burmese General Election, 1990. (2010, August 28). Retrieved August 30, 2010, from Wikipedia: http://en. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Burmese_general_election,_1990 Daw Aung San Suu Kyi Quotes. (1997, January 19). Retrieved August 2010, 31, from Brainy Quote: http://www. brainyquote. com/quotes/authors/d/daw_aung_san_suu_kyi. html The Nobel Prize in Peace 1991. (2010, August 30). Retrieved August 30, 2010, from Nobel Prize: http://nobelprize. org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1991/kyi-bio. html# Wallechinsky, D. (1997, January 19). The Voice of Her People: Aung San Suu Kyi. Retrieved August 31, 2010, from Parade: http://www. parade. com/articles/editions/1997/edition_01-19-1997/aung-san-suu-kyi. html? index=2

Presupposition in Semantics Essay

IntroductionPresupposition is originated in the field of philosophy and it was proposed by German philosopher Ferge in 1892. In the 1960s, presupposition entered the area of linguistics and became a significant concept in semantics. Later in the 1970s, Keenan introduced presupposition to the pragmatics to describe a relation between a speaker and the appropriateness of a sentence in a context (Levinson: 177). Hence, presupposition can be distinguished into two categories: semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition. This thesis is mainly centered on the exploration of presupposition in semantics from the perspectives of features and problems of presupposition. For the sake of searching for the solutions to the problems, the writer also brings two pragmatic theories of presupposition into discussion. Part I. Two Approaches to PresuppositionIn the linguistics, two approaches to presupposition are semantic and pragmatic. Semantic presupposition views the sentence relations in terms of truth relations while pragmatic presupposition describes sentences as an interaction between individuals. A.Semantic PresuppositionIn ordinary language, of course, to presuppose something means to assume it, and the narrower technical use in semantics is related to this (Saeed: 93). In semantics, the meaning of a sentence is based on the sentence itself instead of something constructed by the participants. The semantic presupposition is only concerned about the truth value of the statements. For instance,a)John managed to stop in time. b)John tried to stop in time. (Suo: 130)In the example, sentence a) presupposes sentence b), that is to say, if it is true that John managed to stop in time, it must be true that John tried to stop in time. Meanwhile, if this proposition is false, the presupposition that John tried to stop in time still exists. However, only the truth of sentence b) doesn’t tell anything concerning the result whether he stopped in time or not. Based on the analysis, we can draw a truth table for this presupposition:a bT → TF → TT or F ↠ TThis table is an overt description of the truth relations between sentence a) and b). If sentence a) is true, then its presupposition b) is also true. If sentence a) is false, then the truth of b) still survives.  While if sentence b) is true, sentence a) can be either true or false. The interpretation of presupposition in semantics is on the basis of truth relations. B.Pragmatic PresuppositionCompared with semantic presupposition- a truth-relation approach, pragmatic presupposition is an interactional approach in interpreting the sentence relations. Stalnaker argues that presupposition is essentially a pragmatic phenomenon: part of the set of assumptions is made by participants in a conversation, which he terms the common ground (Saeed: 101). This common ground is the mutual knowledge shared by both speaker and hearer. For example, â€Å"I am afraid my car broke down.† The presupposition of this utterance is that the speaker has a car, which is known to the hearer. However, if the hearer originally doesn’t know the fact, on hearing the utterance, s/he can take it as a common ground for a further conversation. By virtue of context, appropriate presupposition will help the hearer understand the utterance of the speaker. During the conversation, both speaker and hearer are doing the turn-taking and they can depend on the former utterances to conduct a smooth communication. By comparison of semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition, we can gain a better understanding of this notion applied in the linguistics. However, the focus of this thesis is on the presupposition in the semantics. Thus, the following parts will be concentrated on the semantic presupposition. Part II. Features of Semantic PresuppositionIn semantics, presupposition possesses unique features: being different from entailment, presupposition is stable under negation. It is produced not only by the definite description, but also by presupposition triggers. A.StabilitySemantic presupposition relies on the meaning of words and grammatical structures to describe the truth relations between sentences and these aspects don’t vary too much from context to context. Hence,  presupposition is relatively stable and it remains constant under negation of the main sentence. This feature of semantic presupposition makes a distinction between entailment and presupposition. For example,a)I borrowed my friend’s bike today. b)I borrowed something today. If sentence a) is true, it guarantees the truth of sentence b), to be more specific, a) entails b). However, if we negate a) to form a’) then it no longer entails b), repeated as follows:a’) I didn’t borrow my friend’s bike today. b’) I borrowed something today. If it is false that I borrowed my friend’s bike today, it can not tell whether I borrowed something today or not. It might be true that I borrowed something instead of my friend’s bike, but we just don’t know. In contrast, the presupposing sentence is constant even under negation, for instance, c)My sister got married last year. d)I have a sister. The pre-condition of sentence c) is d), if c) is true then d) must be taken as a fact. In other words, sentence c) has the presupposition in d) and the truth of c) makes sure the truth of d) as well. If negating c) as â€Å"My sister didn’t get married last year.† The presupposition that â€Å"I have a sister† also survives. This is the difference between entailment and presupposition, namely, the negation of an entailing sentence leads to the failure of the entailment while negating a presupposing sentence allows the presupposition to survive. B.Presupposition TriggersOn the one hand, the existence of presupposition can derive from the use of a name or definite description. On the other hand, it  can be produced by particular words or sentence constructions, which are called presupposition triggers. Karttunen has collected thirty-one kinds of triggers but in the following section the writer will mainly focus on four types of these triggers: factive verbs, change of state verbs, temporal clauses and cleft sentences. To begin with, verbs like â€Å"regret,† â€Å"deplore,† â€Å"know† and â€Å"agree† are under the category of factive verbs, for they presuppose the truth of the complement clause. For instance,a)Martha regrets/ doesn’t regret drinking John’s home brew. b)Martha drank John’s home brew. (Suo: 131)Whether Martha regrets drinking John’s home brew or not, it is a known fact that Martha drank John’s home brew. The sentence a) has the presupposition in b). By contrast, no such presupposition exists with the non-factive verb like â€Å"think.† For example,c)Tom thought that John was late. d)John was late. Sentence c) indicates that it is only Tom’ personal opinion of John’s being late. Actually, John might not be late and the truth doesn’t reveal from the sentence itself. Therefore, sentence c) doesn’t have the presupposition in d) due to the non-factive verb â€Å"think.†Secondly, the employments of verbs like â€Å"stop,† â€Å"start,† â€Å"begin† and â€Å"finish† imply the change of state. Hence, these lexical triggers are regarded as change of state verbs, which describe the new state and presuppose the former state as well. For instance,a)John stopped/ didn’t stop beating his wife. b)John had been beating his wife. (Suo: 131)The verb â€Å"stop† means making something end and here if John stopped beating his wife, which means that he makes the action of beating his wife end. But if he didn’t stop, the occasion of beating will continue to happen in the future. No matter what the situation is, sentence a) presupposes the fact b) that John had been beating his wife as the former state. What’s more, not only the lexical words trigger the presupposition, but also clauses like temporal clauses may produce presupposition. For example,a)Linda went to the supermarket before she met her friends. b)Linda met her friends. The temporal clause marked by the conjunction â€Å"before† shows that Linda went to the supermarket first and then went to meet her friends. In effect, sentence a) states the fact that Linda really met her friends. It is this temporal clause that ensures the truth of sentence b) and also triggers the presupposition in b). Last but not least, syntactic structure such as cleft sentence can also act as a trigger for the production of certain types of presupposition. For example,a)It was the noise that annoyed me. b)What annoyed me was the noise. c)Something annoyed me. In the example, the cleft construction in a) and the pseudo-cleft in b) share the presupposition in c). No matter how the sentence structure changes, the essence of the sentence remains unchanged. What sentence a) and b) intend to stress is that there is something annoyed me. By means of the features like stability and presupposition triggers, the real intention of the utterances can be investigated. If the speaker changes the predicate â€Å"has† to â€Å"hasn’t,† or â€Å"does† to â€Å"doesn’t,† the presupposition for the utterance is the same, for presupposition is of stability. Presupposition triggers can be used as a tool to present the essence of the sentence, no matter what lexical words and constructions are applied. Part III. Problems of Semantic PresuppositionIn semantics, this truth-based approach gives rise to problems for the presupposition, such as, presupposition failure, the defeasibility of presupposition and the  projection problem. A.Presupposition FailureOn the basis of truth condition, it has been taken for granted that a name or definite description being used refers to the existent entity in the field of semantics. However, if the named or described entity doesn’t exist, it causes problem for this truth-relation approach, which is known as presupposition failure. The following example is by now the most discussed one in this literature:a)The King of France is bald. b)There is a King of France. (Saeed: 96)According to the criterion of truth relation, no doubt sentence a) presupposes sentence b), if it is true that there is a King of France. But if there is no King of France, that is to say, the sentence b) is false, the problem is aroused, for it is uncertain whether this presupposition survives or not. Are the sentences like a) true or false, or just in a gray area, neither true nor false? This dubious situation for truth-based approach results in the truth value gap. For such a problem, Russell offers a famous solution to make an analysis of this definite description as three expressions as follows:The King of France is bald is true if and only if:a)at least one thing is the kingb)at most one thing is the kingc)whatever is the king is bald. (Saeed: 97)From the Russell’s analysis, we know that if there is no King of France, it leads to the falsity of this proposition that the King of France is bald. Thus, there is no gray area between true or false, no truth value gap. However, it seems to be too complex to employ these preconditions for the explanation of one name and it may cost great efforts to analyze the preconditions whenever meet with such kind of statements. In comparison with truth relation approach, it may be less problematic for an interactional approach. During the communication between the individuals, whenever an unfamiliar name or definite description occurs, the hearer can interrupt the speaker so as to signal the failure of the conversation. For instance, the speaker says to someone, â€Å"Mr. Hong will invite us to dinner next Friday.† If the hearer doesn’t know Mr. Hong, it may cause confusion. As the conversation continues, the hearer can ask the speaker who Mr. Hong  is. As for the speaker, s/he can take an immediate response to clear up the misunderstanding. The presupposition failure in semantics results from the narrow question of the truth value of statements about non-existent entities, while in pragmatics, the attention is paid to the more general question of what conventions license a speaker’s referring use of name or definite description. B.DefeasibilityOne of the peculiar things about presupposition is that it is sensitive to context, either immediate linguistic context or the less immediate discourse context, or in circumstances where contrary assumptions are made. In particular context, the presupposition is cancelled and this phenomenon is known as defeasibility. Two factors result in presupposition cancellation: one is the linguistic context and the other one is background assumption about the world. One kind of presupposition defeasibility arises in certain types of linguistic context. For example,You say that someone in this room loves Mary. Well maybe so. But it certainly isn’t Fred who loves Mary. And it certainly isn’t John . . . (We continue in this way until we have enumerated all the people in the room). Therefore no one in this room loves Mary. (Suo: 135)In the example, each of the cleft sentences (it certainly isn’t Fred, etc.) are supposed to presuppose that there is someone in this room who loves Mary, for presupposition is constant under negation. However, the speaker intends to persuade the hearer that there is no one in this room who loves Mary by ruling out the possibilities. Therefore, the presupposition that someone in this room loves Mary is defeated in this counterfactual assumption. Here is another example of the same kind:a)John didn’t manage to pass his exams. b)John tried to pass his exams. c)John didn’t manage to pass his exams. In fact he didn’t even try. Sentence a) has the presupposition in b), but if put a) into such a statement as c), the prior presupposition is abandoned. Without knowing the real fact, if someone makes the utterance that John didn’t manage to pass his exams, it may leave the hearer an impression that at least once he tried to pass his exams. On hearing the fact the hearer will know John’s failure for the exams is due to his lack of efforts in his study. Thus, the presupposition can be cancelled within certain contexts. The other kind of presupposition defeasibility is caused by our general knowledge of the world. For instance,a)She cried before she finished her thesis. b)She finished her thesis. (Saeed: 187)As mentioned above, the temporal clause functions as a trigger for the presupposition. Sentence a) with before-clause presupposes that indeed she finished her thesis. However, if the verb in the main clause is changed to â€Å"die,† the situation will be totally different. For instance,c)She died before she finished her thesis. d)She finished her thesis. (Saeed: 187)Since her death preceded the event of finishing her thesis, it is certain that she never finished the thesis. It is common sense that people do not conduct things after they die. Even if sentence c) is expressed with before-clause, it doesn’t have the presupposition in d). As a result of background belief in the real world, the previous presupposition that she finished her thesis is blocked in this context. C.Projection ProblemLangendoen and Savin suggest that the set of presuppositions of the complex whole is the simple sum of the presuppositions of the parts, i.e. if S0 is a complex sentence containing sentences S1, S2, . . . Sn as constituents, then the presuppositions of S0 = the presuppositions of S1 + the presuppositions of S2 . . . + the presuppositions of Sn (Levinson: 191). For example,S0: John stopped accusing Mary of beating her husband. S1: John accused Mary of beating her husband. S1†²: John judged that it was bad for Mary to beat her husband. S2: John stopped doing it. S2†²: Before time T, John did it. (Suo: 136)In the example, sentence S0 is the complex sentence including two parts S1 and S2, to be more specific, from the statement that John stopped accusing Mary of beating her husband, two meanings can be interpreted: one is that John accused Mary of beating her husband and the other one is that John stopped doing it. The presupposition of S1 is S1†², namely, S1 presupposes that John judged that it was bad for Mary to beat her husband. While S2 has the presupposition in S2†², that is to say, S2 presupposes that before time T, John did it. Thus, the presuppositions of S0 are the presupposition of S1 plus the presupposition of S2. As a matter of fact, this simple solution to the presuppositions of complex sentences is far from correct and it turns out to be impossible to take it as a formula. By using this solution, it is difficult to predict exactly which presuppositions of the parts survive in the whole presupposition of the complex sentences. This compositional problem is called the projection problem for the presuppositions. The projection problem in the presuppositions has two aspects: on the one hand, presuppositions remain in the linguistic context while entailments disappear. On the other hand, presuppositions are cancelled in certain contexts where entailments survive. The first aspect of the projection problem is the survival of presuppositions and cancellation of entailments in the same context. As mentioned above, negation is a typical example for the distinction between presupposition and entailment, for presupposition is stable under negation while entailment isn’t. However, there are other situations in which presupposition remains  and entailment disappears. For instance,a)Mr. Brown bought four books. b)There is a Mr. Brown. c)Mr. Brown bought three books. d)It is possible that Mr. Brown bought four books. e)Mr. Brown could have bought four books. In this example, sentence a) presupposes sentence b) and entails sentence c). If it is true that Mr. Brown bought four books, the precondition for this proposition that there is a Mr. Brown must also be true. And if he already bought four books, he is supposed to have bought three books. However, when the modal operators or modal verbs are embedded in the original statement, the entailment of a) disappears while the presupposition b) still exists. Because modal operators like â€Å"possible,† â€Å"probable† and modal verbs like â€Å"could,† â€Å"should† are considered to be a kind of conjecture. The employments of them reveal speaker’s uncertainty about his utterances. Another situation of the same kind is the compound sentences formed by the connectives â€Å"and,† â€Å"or,† â€Å"if . . . then† and what not. For instance,a)The two students handed in the homework late again this Monday. b)A student handed in the homework late this Monday. c)The two students handed in the homework late before. d)If the two students handed in the homework late again this Monday, their teacher will get angry. The adverb â€Å"again† applied in the sentence a) presupposes that the two students handed in the homework late before. If two students handed in the homework late, it must entail that one of them handed in the homework late. Thus, sentence a) presupposes c) and also entails b). However, if sentence  a) is embedded in a complex sentence like d), the utterance a) can only be regarded as an assumption in the complex whole. Hence, the former entailment is abandoned in the new compound sentence but the presupposition that they did before still survives. The other aspect of the projection problem is that presupposition is blocked while entailment still exists in certain contexts. If the predicates of the utterances are the verbs of propositional attitude such as â€Å"want,† â€Å"believe,† â€Å"imagine,† â€Å"dream† and the like, the blocking of presupposition appears to take place. For instance,a)Tom believes he’s the president of America. b)There is a present president of America. In this example, sentence a) entails that Tom believes something, but it doesn’t have the presupposition that there is a present president of America. The verb like â€Å"believe† is only a non-factive verb, which doesn’t ensure the truth of its complement. Moreover, the employment of it will leave the hearer an impression that what the speaker says is just a personal opinion. Thus, the presupposition is blocked because of the verb â€Å"believe.†Another example is given as follows:a)I dreamed that I was a German and that I regretted being a German. b)I was a German. In the sentence a), the speaker doesn’t shoulder the responsibility of uttering it by employing the verb â€Å"dream.† The application of â€Å"dream† indicates that this utterance can not be taken seriously as a fact. However, sentence a) still entails that â€Å"I dreamed something,† but doesn’t presuppose that â€Å"I was a German.† In such a situation, the complex sentences with certain verbs of propositional attitude block their presuppositions but maintain the entailments. By means of analyzing the problems of presupposition in the field of semantics, we can draw a conclusion that this truth relation approach is far  from adequate to describe the relationships between presupposing and presupposed sentences. Admittedly, the issue of presupposition is not only being discussed in semantics but also in the pragmatics. Part IV. Pragmatic Theories of PresuppositionAs for pragmatic presupposition, various theories have been put forward by linguists such as Stalnaker, Gazdar and what not. Among these theories, two of them are the most developed theories that deal with the defeasibility and the projection problems. Both theories assume that presuppositions are part of the conventional meaning of expressions, instead of semantic inference. The first theory has been developed by Karttunen and Peters, which is expressed in the framework of Montague grammar. In the Montague grammar, clauses are built up from their constituents from the bottom up rather than from the top down as in transformational generative grammar (Levinson: 207). The basic idea in this theory is that sentences are built up from their components and the meanings conveyed in these sentences are subject to the words, clauses and so on, but in the presuppositions, meanings are associated with these triggers. According to Karttunen and Peters’ theory, presuppositions are actually non-cancellable. The meaning expressions that capture the presuppositional content of each presupposition-triggering item will be related with each constituent a heritage expression. If there is a predicate like propositional attitude verb, it will have a heritage expression that blocks the presuppositions ascending to be presupposition of the whole sentence. In such circumstances, presupposition isn’t in fact cancelled, but it is blocked during the process of derivation by the heritage expression. For example,a)Bush thinks that Kerry’s attitude about terrorism is dangerous. b)Kerry has an attitude about terrorism. The subordinate clause of sentence a) presupposes that Kerry has an attitude about terrorism. However, the verb â€Å"think† has the heritage expression which prevents this presupposition from being the presupposition of the whole. The other theory is proposed by Gazdar, in which presuppositions are actually cancelled. At the early stage of derivation, the presuppositions of any complex sentence will consist of all the potential presuppositions of the parts. Then a canceling mechanism will begin to work and it only selects these presuppositions which are consistent with all the propositions already in the context. In this theory, the generations of presuppositions adhere to a special order: first the entailments of what are said are added to the context, then the conversational implicatures, and only finally the presupposition (Levinson: 213). In each step, these presuppositions that contradict the former propositions will be eliminated through selection and only the ones being consistent with them will survive. For example,a)If there is a King of France, the King of France doesn’t any longer live in Versaills. b)The speaker knows that there exists a King of France. c)It is consistent with all the speaker knows that there is not a King of France. (Suo: 143)In the sentence a), the clause that â€Å"the King of France doesn’t any longer live in Versaills† has the potential presupposition in b). However, the conditional sentence a) entails that there is not a King of France. Based on the special order in Gazdar’s theory, this entailment enters into the context before the potential presupposition. Hence, this potential presupposition is cancelled without entering into the context. Although the two theories are opposing to each other, both of them offer an explanation for the defeasibility of presupposition and projection problem. However, even in the field of pragmatics, adequate solution to the presupposition is not obtained, which needs further developments. ConclusionIn the field of linguistics, we can probe into the presupposition from two perspectives, namely, semantic presupposition and pragmatic presupposition. This thesis mainly focuses on the interpretation of presupposition in semantics. The writer introduces the features of semantic presupposition like stability under negation and presupposition triggers and then makes an analysis of the problems aroused by this truth-based theory  such as presupposition failure, defeasibility and projection problem. To solve these problems, two theories concerning the pragmatic presupposition are discussed. Although both of them offer the explanations for the problems of presupposition, they are not considered to be adequate solutions. The further developments of presupposition rely on the complex interactions between semantics and pragmatics. References Levinson, Stephen C. Pragmtics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2005. Saeed, John I. Semantics. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Researching Press, 2005.